Behaviors

There are a number of patterns of behavior into which we fall and things we do. This page is the parking lot for these!

Addiction

What is Addiction? Characteristics Addiction is a commonly used word to indicate that a person repeatedly behaves in a certain way. Certain characteristics are common: Craving Craving is a strong desire that can be virtually omnipresent. This may appear in an obsessive way, where the person thinks about the addiction almost constantly. Compulsion The addict may feel driven to engage in the given behavior, with a desire so strong they seem unable to say 'no', even if they know that the addiction is harmful. It is perhaps the associated loss of control that makes addiction so troublesome. Repetition The addictive behavior is repeated in predictable patterns. In extreme, this is to the exclusion or reduction of many other 'normal' activities, including socializing, eating and sleeping. Benefit The thing to which the person is addicted has some benefit for them. This may be direct or indirect stimulation of pleasurable feelings, including euphoria, relaxation and general feelings of well-being. Benefit many also be gained through anesthetization and numbing of unpleasant feelings, such as those experienced in depression. Harm Addiction often has the connotation of harm, with the notion that the addict will, sooner or later, be harmed by being addicted. This may include: Physiological harm, for example where brain cells are damaged. Psychological harm, for example where they may become depressed. Social harm, where they become outcasts with few friends and little social support. Dependence A dependent person cannot do without some named thing. They have an attachment to it that may be physiological, psychological or some combination of the two. If the dependent person is deprived of their target, then they suffer in some way, experiencing some kind of withdrawal symptoms. These can range from the 'cold turkey' fever of withdrawal from 'hard' drugs to irritability and moodiness when a child is denied access to their favorite computer game. Withdrawal is often an opposite effect. Heroin causes euphoria, relaxation and constipation. When it is removed the person gets dysphoria, cramping and diarrhea. Tolerance/sensitivity Some addictions result in the person becoming tolerant to the point where repeated action leads to decreasing effect. In other addictions, the person is sensitized, such that smaller actions are required for the same effect. Discussion The term 'addiction' is often used quite loosely in common conversation with phrases such as 'marijuana is addictive' or 'he's addicted to computer games' without too much consideration of what the boundaries of the 'addiction' classification might be. Physiological and psychological Addiction is often separated into physiological addiction, as characterized by the use of hard drugs, and psychological addiction, such as nymphomania or excessive video gaming. In practice it is difficult to separate these, for example in the way that psychological 'choices' use the physiological systems of the brain. Heritability It is often believed that some people are more susceptible to addiction than others, inheriting this tendency through their genes. As an example, a study has shown that over a third of relatives of people with an alcohol use disorder also suffer from alcohol abuse, and even more so amongst siblings. Whilst there appears to be clear proof in this, the effect is difficult to determine exactly, as other factors such as socioeconomic status can have cloaking effects. Adoption studies have, however, proved more clearly that alcohol dependence susceptibility has a genetic aspect. Twin studies have led to estimates of the heritability of alcohol dependence ranging from 39 to 60% of the total variance (Heath, 1995, and others). Similarly, the heritability of smoking addiction has been estimated at 53% (Heath and Martin, 1993), and that for nicotine dependence between 60 and 70% (Kendler et al. 1999). Neuroadaptation Neuroadaptation is a theory of dependence that assumes changes in the brain following significant drug usage. Within-systems adaptationoccur where changes are within a single neural system and between-systems adaptation occurs where multiple systems are affected. Discontinuance of the drug thence disrupts the balanced homeostasis that has been set up, causing withdrawal symptoms. Learning and habit Addiction can be viewed as a form of learning, albeit aberrant, and learning theory can be applied. 'Habit' is a form of instrumental learning where a stimulus elicits a response without reference to the goal (reinforcer) that originally motivated the learning. In other words, it becomes a relatively unthinking action. Behaviorism Addiction can also be linked to psychological factors whereby the addict becomes conditioned into use of the behavior. This may be applied to drug use, which may be directly linked to neural effects, and other forms of addiction which seem to have a more behavioral and motivational basis. In this way, drugs may have both physiological and psychological motivational aspects. Behaviourism also explains the importance of cues that trigger sequences of thinking and acting, such as when the heroin addict sees a needle or when an alcoholic sees an advert for vodka. Personality Aspects of personality have been linked to addiction, for example Eysenck and Eysenck, (1985) suggest there are three major and independent personality dimensions: P (psychoticism), N (neuroticism), and E (extraversion). Further research has shown dependence correlating when both N and P are high, although this still does not prove cause and effect. Choice We are, at least in part, rational beings and can make logical choices. People 'in sound mind' do choose to take drugs or indulge in other harmful activity. This has been investigated found that a tendency to focus on the near future more than the uncomfortable more distant future can be a factor and has been labelled 'cognitive myopia' (Hermstein and Prelec, 1992). This effect may be moderated by the way that we tend to weight the near future more highly than the more distant future (Ainslie, 1992). Effective forgetting the pain of past indulgences is also an effect as addicts focus on the near-term benefits. Cascade There has been some linkage between drugs, for example where a person who is drunk is more likely to accept other drugs. In particular nicotine has been shown to be a gateway to other substance abuse (although of course many smokers do not indulge in illicit substances). Context There are many contextual factors that can lead to addiction, including: Antisocial behavior Anxiety and depression The influence of peers Relapse A person who has given up the addictive substance/behavior may relapse into addiction again. This can be caused by: Indulging again (even once) Appearance of a conditioned stimulus Stressful event (whereby the comfort of the addiction is sought) The danger of relapse can continue indefinitely, for example where smokers easily take up smoking again long after they have 'given up', and particularly where the craving never fully goes away. To help prevent relapse, facilities such as Narconon drug rehab provide effective programs to overcome addiction. There are also numerous resources online that you can use if you need to know how to help a heroin addict or a person hooked on other drugs. Addiction vs. compulsion Compulsive disorders are sometimes seen as addictions, yet psychologists often separate them, though the boundary can be rather fuzzy even for psychologists. For example in Obsessive Buying Disorder (or 'shopaholic' to most of us) is often considered to not be an addition. A compulsion is perhaps more of a ritual that has few goals other than performance of the behavior (such as counting things), as opposed to an addiction, which has a more specific end in mind (such as pleasurable feelings). Addiction is more about harmful behavior. Both have physiological and psychological elements. Addicts feel compulsion and those who have compulsive disorders may well seem addicted. Both are about a lack of control. And they can overlap: a study has shown that a significantly larger number of alcoholics had suffered compulsive disorders than would be found in the normal population. In the end, it is as much about definition as anything. There are clear drug addicts and obsessive-compulsive disorders. It all gets a bit gray, though, when you get to gambling and shopping. Further addiction problems Description Beyond the harm that addictions cause, such as the physiological and psychological harm of taking drugs, other issues may arise. Threat of disease Many addicts have little money as they spend all they have on drugs. As a result and because of other socially depressive effects, they act in very unhygienic ways, such as sharing needles. As a result they can catch HIV, hepatitis, microembolism, septicemia and so on. The drugs they buy may also be made in non-hygienic environments and cut with harmful other substances. Their varying potency can easily lead to overdose. Even taking the drugs badly can cause problems, such as intravenous injections that also inject air and do not accurately target veins. Transmission Once caught diseases can be transmitted to others, most tragically from an addicted mother to her unborn child. Social cost The cost to society of addiction can be very high, particularly when addictive behavior impacts others such such as robbery and assault by addicts in their desperation get money for drugs. Policing costs also go up significantly, including seeking to reduce availability of illegal substances as well as to control the behaviors of addicts. Healthcare costs can also be enormous, from the low-level treatment of drunks who fall over and hurt themselves, to clinics for addicts where they are hopefully weaned off their addictive behavior. Discussion Drugs that are classed as dangerous may not as dangerous as they are in practice and regulated use with clean needles and accurate quantities can be much safer for the addict and reduce the chance of longer-term harm. Of course such discussions are highly emotive and governments run into all kinds of accusations when they seek to reclassify drugs. Craving Craving is an important concept and activity in addiction. Here is a definition and a number of models. Craving is... Craving is the powerful desire that an addict has for the addicted substance or activity. Craving is a deep hunger, a lust that does not go away. In fact the more it is ignored, the stronger the feeling of need becomes. Craving is often relatively low to start with, but when the feeling starts, the addict quickly moves to feeding the desire. Craving is more powerful when the addict is trying to give up, and is a major reason for relapse. Craving can also be erratic and the feeling be intense even after the addict has successfully indulged. Even after having given up, the desire does not go away and just the sight of a bottle of vodka can still make a person who has given up years ago go weak at the knees. Conditioned craving The principle of conditioned craving is that withdrawal symptoms become a conditioned response. Addictive behavior then occurs to avoid the withdrawal effects. Withdrawal may also be connected to particular locations, such as a therapist's room. Craving in this model is hence caused in a chain of cause and effect. Cognitive labelling model This is a variant of Schachter and Singer's (1962) Two-Factor Theory where emotion arises from a combination of physiological arousal and cognitive thought. In this way an alcoholic perceives alcohol-related cues that lead to physiological arousal and cognitive response, and so identifies the result as craving. The extent of the craving is related to the intensity of the arousal. Outcome expectancy model In this model, environmental cues trigger expectations about the effects of the addictive behavior. This expectation has two components: informational, about various effects, and motivational, about the desire to experience the benefits. Overall, expectancy is related to action, with greater expectation of positive outcomes leading to deeper addictive indulgence. Craving here is seen as the desire for experience. The desire then triggers intent and urges that lead to action. Dual-affect model In the dual affect model, craving can be created by both negative and positive emotions, including getting away from negative experience and moving toward positive ones. This is a pain-and-pleasure pattern, avoiding pain and seeking pleasure. Notably, pain and pleasure are seen as mutually exclusive as people cannot simultaneously experience both negative and positive emotions. Craving here is a propositional network of memories, stimulus and response. Any given network is triggered through appropriate environmental cues. The greater the activation of the network, the more consistent will be the response. Cognitive processing model This model differentiates automatic processing, where the addict indulges whenever they are stimulated to do so, from non-automatic processing, where they are prevented from indulging. This block then leads to the excessive desire of craving. The blocking off of the desired route and the subsequent craving requires cognitive effort in deciding what to do next. Craving thus creates cognition. Four interpretations of addiction Addiction as disease Addiction as disease suggests that the addict literally cannot help themselves in the same way that a person with a disease cannot help becoming ill. The opposite of this is addiction as choice, where the person makes conscious decisions to indulge in the behaviour that eventually becomes addictive. Even when addicted, they have choice in deciding to fight the addiction. There are companies such as Narconon that offer help in the fight to overcome addiction. Although this is still prevalent in social conversation, modern addiction research has, to a large extent, discredited this 'disease' model. Addiction as rational self This model views the addict as a rational consumer who chooses to partake of the addictive behavior from a position of constant free will. The current view is that whilst consumption may start as a rational choice it gradually becomes less as the addict becomes attached to the target addictive substance. There is also the question as to whether there is ever completely free will. Recent research has highlighted how the subconscious brain activates in a decision before the conscious brain. Addiction as a primrose path This model interprets addiction as as an unknowing process whilst the person indulges in pleasant activities. The person slips gradually into dependence without realizing what is happening until it is too late. Addition as divided self This has as multiple-personality viewpoint where the 'addict' appears as a  separate aspect of the self. It assumes that people hold inconsistent preferences, either concurrently or successively. This leads them to both seek rational behavior whilst also taking the irrational steps of an addict. Incentive-sensitization theory of addiction Robinson and Berridge have described a theory of addiction based on preconscious sensitization of neural systems. 1. Hypersensitization Compulsive seeking of drugs comes from a progressive and persistent hypersensitization of particular neural systems. This neural sensitization describes increasing ability of a drug to stimulate particular neurobehavioral systems. Even intermittent use of drugs leads to this sensitization. Sensitization increases the effect of the same quantity of a drug. Thus the person gets steadily increasing pleasure each time they use it. This is not just a pharmacological effect. Learning systems and conditioning are important and act to amplify results. 2. Increased wanting The neural systems involved lead to a motivational sequence of incentive salience or, more simply, 'wanting.' This is not 'liking' or pleasure, which is an outcome, but a driver of the addictive action, although it may have pleasurable associations, perhaps of anticipated pleasure. The 'wanting' and 'liking' described here are preconscious processes that leads to conscious desire and pleasure. 3. Repetition Repetition of the addictive behavior, typically taking drugs, leads to increased sensitization. Addicts thus want the drugs more even if they know the harmful effects and would like to stop. Narconon is one company that can assist in helping to overcome the want for whatever the addiction may be. The organization offers addicts a way to recover from addiction privately. 4. Conscious desire The preconscious neural wanting becomes conscious desire. This translation process can lead to us seeking something without really knowing why. Excessive appetites Appetites There is a range of human appetites or desires for consumption of some sort, some natural and some of our own construction. At times, we feel 'hunger' or desire for this consumption. When we are sated, we feel 'full'. Core-group appetites include drinking alcohol, gambling, drug-taking and sex. Other appetites include stealing, fire-setting and other criminal activities. Excess Sometimes, the appetite runs out of control, such that we seek to indulge the appetite beyond what may be considered 'normal'. The nature of excess may vary by frequency or intensity, for example regular and/or bingeing indulgence. The person forms an attachment with the addictive actions and thus integrates them. Complex model The excessive-appetites model assumes a complex model with multiple interacting determinants, particularly ecological, socioeconomic and cultural factors that can offer more or less opportunities to indulge. The model also assumes numerous and varying personal functions may be served, for example self-expression, mood modification and identity protection. As behavior may vary over time, a longitudinal view is more effective for understanding this complexity rather than a simple snapshot. The main pattern of the model is: Multiple social and personal determinants, leading to... Emotional-cognitive-behavioral attachment, leading to... Strong addictive attachment, leading to... Costs and conflicts, leading to... Decision to change, leading to... Change and recovery Changing behaviors As the addiction develops, thinking and acting also change, both coping with and increasing the complexity of the condition. By and large, we make decisions through breaking down choices into discriminating parts. In excessive appetites, the process of increasing attachment leads to generalization rather than discrimination. Secondary emotional cycles and processes develop to cope with the negative effects of the addiction, such as the alcoholic's hiding of bottles and the gambler's increasing bets to try and recover losses. There are many costs that may not be apparent to the addict, at least not until they are deeply attached. These include financial, social and physical losses. Discussion Historically, excessive appetites have the suffix 'mania' as in kleptomania, nymphomania and pyromania. Learning theory is important in the Excessive-appetites model which assumes learning uses a powerful set of attachment processes, including the effects of conditioning. The depth of addiction may be shallow or chronic and the person may have to get to rock bottom before they accept their condition and think realistically about recovery. The good news is that many people climb out of the hole by themselves and without professional support. After a point of realization and choice, which may have social and moral components, they decide to act. Description 'CAGE' is an acronym for a useful set of questions that can be used to help diagnose addiction.   Key words Alcoholism example question C Cut down Have you ever felt you should cut down on drinking? A Annoyed Have people annoyed you by criticizing your drinking? G Guilty Have you ever felt guilty about your drinking? E Eye-opener Have you ever had an 'eye-opener' -- a drink first thing in the morning to help you feel better? Discussion This is a simple set of questions that are easily answered. Apart perhaps from 'E', they are also transferable to other addictions beyond alcoholism. 'E' could be fitted to other additive situations where the addict indulges in something 'just to feel better'. 'C' indicates that the person wants to cut down or feels that they should, showing they know they are over-indulging. 'A' both indicates others have identified the problem and also picks up on denial, which is a common symptom. 'G' is also common, particularly when others are affected, financially, physically, emotionally or in some other way. Addicts feel guilty about this when they seem unable to control themselves. Symptoms of addiction Description Addiction symptoms can be many and varied. Here are several, derived from a range of sources: Symptom Example Increasing use Indulging more and more often and in steadily greater quantities Failure to fulfil major role obligations (at work, school, home, etc.) Absences, poor work quality, punishments, accidents, neglect Indulgence in physically hazardous situations Indulging whilst driving or operating machinery Legal problems Arrest for use or sale of addictive substance, or for antisocial behavior Quitting problems Unwilling or unable to give up the addictive action Relationship problems Argument, violent behavior, lack of attention to maintaining the relationship Preoccupation Spending time thinking or talking about the addiction (when not indulging) Retreating inwards Not joining in activities with others, retreating to own room for long periods Change of social circles Away from 'normal' friends and towards other addicts or supporters Emotional changes Anger outbursts, anxiety, intolerance of others, depression Physiological changes Periods of sweating, pupil dilation, clammy skin. Also bursts of being energetic Non-verbal signs Slurring words, difficulty speaking, lack of physical coordination, moving slowly or quickly Sleep changes Sleeping significantly more or less or at odd times Weight changes Increase or decrease in weight over a short period Concealment Hiding bottles, substances, injection scars on arms. Also lying about behavior and denial Financial problems Running out of money, selling things, borrowing or stealing Discussion These are just a few of the possible effects that various forms of addiction can cause. The person is unlikely to show all symptoms, but if there are several then you might want to investigate further. You can also look for causes where the person is escaping something in life, such as grief over a loved-one's death, problems at work or financial problems. Increases in general stress can lead to them trying to escape through various means, and then becoming addicted to the escape mechanism. Note that the table above is generic and does not break down into particular addictions. For effects such as of particular drugs, look to specific information. Note also that these effects can indicate addiction but they are not definitive. If you suspect someone is addicted, it is important that you get professional advice and support (particularly if you or others are suffering at the hands of the supposed addict). Compulsion, Obsession and Addiction There is often confusion between compulsion, obsession and addiction, with the words being used interchangeably. Yet these are three quite different things. Compulsion Compulsion is a feeling of pressure to act. For example if someone holds out their hand to me, I feel a compulsion to shake hands with them, especially if we have just met. Compulsion comes from needs, desires and other motivation. In many ways it is normal and is a mechanism by which we succeed in life. It becomes dysfunctional when it takes over one's life, as in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), where even when the person does not want to do something they feel powerless to stop themself. Compulsion is of course important in persuasion where you want to get others into action. For example if the other person sees you as a powerful authority then they feel a compulsion to obey you, even if they think the action unwise. This form of blind obedience is often sought by parents, managers and military officers.  Obsession Obsession is thinking about something for a significant amount of time. This may be involuntary and unwanted, although it may well give the person some form pleasure. Obsession may lead to compulsion but it is not the same thing. It is a cognitive process and may stay that way. Lovers think obsessively about one another. Students worry obsessively about exams. Obsession may also lead to the compulsion to act. Collectors often obsess over their hobby, then feel a compulsion to buy things that perhaps they can ill afford. This can become dangerous, for example where an obsessive stalker seeks to control and harm their victim . Addiction Addiction is chemical. People get addicted to narcotics, alcohol and other drugs which typically stimulate or depress brain functioning. The fact that addiction has a neurochemical basis rather than being psychological in origin makes it difficult to give up. Severe withdrawal symptoms may further dog this process. Addiction may involve obsession and compulsion, for example where Addicts think obsessively about where the next 'fix' will come from and the compulsion they feel to administer drugs to themselves when they also know the harm they doing. +Dubie Bacino +Google France +luc gruwez +Elena Demidov +Angela Morozova +VICE France +Larry Page +Lenny Pietersz +lenna souza +Sabrina Silva +Sirata Sanrio +Debra Jordan +John Nash +John Null +purushotham puli +Dani Pinheiro +Daniel Kitts +cesar peña +Catinca Elisei +Hyran Swat +Gegő Attila +Chris Thompson +Nathalie Kosciusko-Morizet +Kosta Lilin +Vanessa Nappa +cinzia quaranta +Chris Thompson +Thomas Dube +Thomas Weaver +Thomas Albrecht +warunee kumthongthae +Denise Brown +warunee kumthongthae +warunee kumthongthae +Katiane Silva +Thomas Weaver +Thomas Lanfer +Andria King +Christine Chapman +Lorena Velasquez +Lorenzo C Spencer +Bir acaip Adam +Francisca Regina Rolon Cabral +fuad majidi +Wanessa Loruane +Gegő Attila  +Yomarie Reyes Cay +Farkas Magdi +irina ionas +Antoine helium +Sehar Jee +Daniel Kitts +Kis Kacsa Rózsaszín +Michael Burroughs +Morandini - Le Grand Direct des Médias - Europe 1 +Eugene Mckinney +Mathew Nelson +Clara Scemama +chamila perera +klajdi shahini +abdulaahi cabaas +Kyong sik Kim +Kim Adamof +LDLC.com +luc gruwez +sebastiana lopes +LDLC.com +pedro luis ruiz sarmiento +Manu Chao +Calin Matias +Erdinç Güner +Tina En +Elena Demidov +United Nations Human Rights +Christie Ng +Richard Cummings +maria b. +Vân Phạm +Charise Strandberg +Thomas Weaver +Erdinç Güner +AdSense Dashboard +Gustyani Putri +Ena Castaneda +Mahmoud Brak +TARA ABRAXAS +Scott Buehler +Scott Ledbetter +Valery Tkachenko +Sudabeh Pepsi +Kantika Phoopanporn +Ha Nguyen +Yolanda C +Mirko Chessari +purushotham puli +mslinkin parklovr +Lisa Bridge +Alexandre Fagundes de Fagundes +Vic Gundotra +Amnesty International USA +Sharon Smith +tee janna +Pimpakar Reanjang +Tsugi +alan gardy +alias inkhorn +stromae +wasiorkogoya kogoyawasior +Keen'V +CHRISTOPHE MAÉ +Sa naz Ariaei +Touche Pas à Mon Poste (TPMP) +Morandini - Le Grand Direct des Médias - Europe 1 +sweksha shukla +Breast Cancer Answers +emmie pitts +sony music france +Musée du Louvre +NUMERIK, le blog de la création numérique +Cyril Hanouna - Les Pieds dans le plat +petra Rol +Tina En +Deleña Belle +La Blogothèque +Govardhanakrishna Radhakrishna +Archana Tare +Sabrina Silva +pedro luis ruiz sarmiento +fan2.fr +Rendez-vous à Paris +Climate Reality +Scott Buehler +fathima shireen +Dirk Gonthier +Thomas Weaver +Robert GIL +Richard Branson +Dayana First